A Life Course Approach To Health Psychology Essay

A Life Course Approach To Health Psychology Essay In the early years, illnesses were studied only in terms of single causes; one agent led to one particular disease. However, we now know that the health of individuals and societies are affected by a combination of factors such as hereditary factors, living conditions, socioeconomic status and social support networks. A life course approach to health focuses on all ages and stages of life and takes into account a wide range of processes that interact and influence peoples health from birth to old age ( Kuh et al, 2003) and also has implications on the way health care needs of people are considered. Based on the understanding that ones past and present life experiences are shaped by the wider socio-cultural context, we can study the current pattern of health and disease of an individual by looking into and examining their past life events for clues into present health related behaviour (WHO, 2000) such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, unhealthy diets and similar behaviours t hat have adverse effects on ones health and overall well being. Although, in the past, the Biomedical model of health which emphasizes on the biological determinants or external pathogens has proven to be effective in the control of massive infectious diseases ( Havelka et al, 2009), there is a crucial need to understand health and diseases from various other perspectives that take into account major influential factors such as biological, behavioural and psychosocial processes that run throughout the life of an individual and contribute towards both acquisition and attrition of physiological and psychological functioning. Such an approach aids in understanding the development and course taken by various diseases, leading to the formulation of preventive measures and treatment plans. A life course approach to health emphasizes on events from all stages of life, starting from the intrauterine environment and throughout adult life, subsequently studying how such events influence the risk for chronic illnesses and health outcomes later in life, whic h is why the narrow biomedical model has been broadened into an integrated model that looks at not only the biological determinants of health but also the psychosocial and behavioural aspects. On a simpler note, life course approach aims to understand how biological, psychosocial and behavioural risk factors during the fetal period, infancy, childhood and early adulthood accumulate and increase the risk for a number of diseases. Timing of physical growth and psychological transitions are known to be influential in the manifestation of various adult chronic diseases and therefore strongly affects an individuals capacity to be healthy (Osler, 2006). While ones genetic makeup or external pathogens (biological factors) may determine the onset of an illness up to certain degree, it can be debated that this is intensified by various personal behaviours and societal influences. A classic example of a life course approach to health would be the field of gerontology which studies how people age by examining an array of biological, psychological, social and lifestyle factors. Furthermore, if we were to consider cigarette smoking, a detrimental health related behaviour and a frequent ly used example in health related research, we can say that although an individuals family history of smoking( genetic influence) will definitely increase the risk of engaging in such behaviour, other factors such as exposure to smokers( peer/societal factor) or the need to live up to the expectations of others(psychosocial factor) will intensify the risk of smoking behaviour which, in turn, increases the risk for various health complications related to cigarette smoking, such as lung cancer, later in life. The importance of a life course approach lies in its implications for the way an individuals health is assessed, formulation of treatment plans based on past and ongoing events and training of health care professionals to equip them with a better understanding of peoples health and its underlying determinants ( WHO,2006). This paper focuses on the life course perspective on health, which is gradually becoming an efficient framework to study health and development of diseases, and also looks into the biological, psychosocial and behavioural processes that influence health throughout the lifespan. TIME, CRITICAL PERIOD AND ACCUMULATION OF RISKS The functional capacity of our physiological systems that increases during the early years of life reaches its peak in adulthood and begins to decline thereafter; external factors determine the intensity and speed of both the increase and decline. Therefore the lifespan perspective is defined by major concepts such as health trajectories, accumulation of risk factors, chains of risk, timing of exposure ( critical and sensitive periods), factors that mediate and modify the exposure-disease association and various adaptive strategies (Wethington, 2005). The life course perspective is a much broader approach than the Barker hypothesis or the Fetal origins hypothesis which focuses entirely on the relationships between early fetal environment and development of diseases later during adulthood and old age. It takes into account the contributions of both early biological programming (Barker, 1992) and later adult lifestyle factors which lead to the formation of biological, psychological and social chains of risks (Power et al, 1999). A number of researches (Smith, 2000; Lumey, 1998) and birth cohort studies reveal the existence of critical periods, not just during the intrauterine phase but also later in life, characterized by exogenous stimuli that have lasting effects on the structural and functional development of bodily systems leading to lifelong health implications. For example, fetal alcohol exposure during the first trimester is often associated with craniofacial abnormalities in conjunction with improper mental development (Fetal Alcohol Syndrome) as well as low birth weight (Coles, 1994). Similarly, there are various sensitive periods, mainly during childhood and adolescence, when the timing of exposure plays a crucial role in determining the development of lifelong adaptive strategies, social skills and health behaviours that have direct implications on development of illnesses later in life. For instance, the period between birth to 4 years is very crucial for sensory refinement in children, whereby f ailure to attend to the differences in sensory stimuli can lead to a diminished ability to make sense of the broader social environment leading to deprivation of social interaction and formation of social relationships (characterized by accumulation of stress and anxiety) which will eventually lead to adverse effects on the health of individuals later in life. Accumulation of risk factors over time also determines the likelihood of a disease occurring, for instance people who belonged to a poor socioeconomic environment as a child are more likely to have had poor educational attainment, exposure to poor eating habits and nutrition, air pollution, passive smoking, detrimental lifestyle choices, infections due to childhood neglect and inadequate social support, all of which carries onto a similar pattern in adulthood and increases the risk of adult health complications such as poor immune system, coronary heart diseases, high blood pressure and so on (Kuh Ben-Schlomo, 2002). In addition, the life course approach aims to understand whether such early bio psychosocial factors lead to just additional risk or interact with later adulthood events to intensify long term health conditions. Hence, the life course perspective combines the Early programming model and cumulative pathway model; the former is concerned with Biopsychosocial events in early life, starting from the fetal period until childhood, that have life-long influences while the latter focuses on lifelong accumulation of stress through various social and behavioural expectations that ultimately affects an individuals overall adaptive system. So, this approach focuses on the determinants of health from early developmental phase and also over the course of lifespan where time takes the centre stage, focusing on different exposure-timing interactions resulting in different health outcomes. BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH Development of human beings is characterized by a number of biological, psychosocial and behavioural processes, each with different levels of importance at different developmental stages, and which involves growth, maintenance and loss of physiological and psychological functioning. Human development is, therefore, shaped by biological, social and behavioural factors working together (Myers et al). It is quite interesting to note that development is multidimensional in nature, involving the body, mind and emotions that interact and bring about significant changes at different stages in the lifespan and so it can be argued that the events that occur during such interactions or the individual lifestyle choices one makes will lead to either accumulation of risk or protective factors which will subsequently determine the susceptibility of individuals to adult diseases or chronic illnesses. So, the life course approach to health focuses on understanding the individual nature as well as th e cumulative impact of such bio-psychosocial and behavioural factors that co-constructs development and also health in the long run. A variety of behavioural factors or habits can have adverse effects on ones health. Some of the most commonly known factors include smoking, alcohol consumption, dietary pattern, level of physical activity, sexual behaviour and substance abuse. While excessive consumption of alcohol is associated with liver cirrhosis, untimely death and hazards to health from alcohol related violence, smoking is one of the leading causes of coronary heart diseases, asthma, lung cancer and a reduced life expectancy by seven to eight years (NWPHO data, 2005). In addition, poor dietary pattern/habit established during early childhood can increase the risk for obesity or malnutrition, leading to further health complications later in life such as weak immune system and eventually a decrease in life expectancy. Substance abuse and sexual behaviour (unprotected sex), like any other lifestyle habit, has devastating effects on health and general wellbeing, and in almost all cases they impact family and social relationships through events such as teenage pregnancy, domestic violence, unrest in the household, etc. Socioeconomic condition of people shape their risk for diseases later in life since both harmful exposures and opportunities are patterned by ones social environment, not to mention the life choices we make that are influenced by our social experiences. People interact with their social environment on a daily basis and such interactions affect their health either directly through psychobiological processes (experience of stress and anxiety) or indirectly leading to the development or modification of health related behaviours formerly discussed. The psychosocial factors that are known to impact ones health status include the social support network, work environment (ideal vs. stressful), work-home balance, sense of security, autonomy and so on. Stress and anxiety brought upon by such processes can lead to various psychological conflicts such as loss of self-esteem, feelings of worthlessness, which will in turn affect the physiological functioning of the body. This brings us to the und erstanding that psychosocial processes or environment may have a role to play in disease aetiology (Cassel, 1974). In addition, it can also be argued that positive social support network facilitates behaviours that are considered healthy by the promotion of healthy eating, abstinence from substances and better adherence to treatments (Uchino, 2006). In his paper, Policy, Biology, and health, Bortz emphasizes that biological factors occur in various combinations to determine the functional well being of individuals. Although the human genome is often regarded as the ultimate determinant of human health, there are other equally important factors that influence health and well being, such as threats presented by the external environment (agents) and deterioration of internal bodily functioning. The life course approach to health is characterized by a temporal ordering of formerly mentioned biological, psychosocial and behavioural processes and is built on the view that these factors interact and have a cumulative influence on the development and course of illnesses in adulthood (Hertzman et al, 2001). So, the genetic makeup of individuals interact with intrauterine insults and various socially patterned exposures during childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood that determine the risk for a number of health conditions and also accounts for socioeconomic, gender and ethnic inequalities in health ( Kuh, Ben-Schlomo, Lynch, et al, 2003). This approach helps us address some of the most common and emerging health conditions at present such as obesity, asthma and diabetes. In a study by Lamont et al in 2000, a number of early and later life factors were ordered temporally and the inter relationships were examined leading to the discovery of several potential disease pathway. In a similar study by Eriksson et al in 2001, these disease pathways were found to be influenced by a number of confounding factors and mediators and therefore, depending on the type and time of exposure, the pathways can be predominant in one of the following areas: biological, social, socio-biological and bio-social (Krieger, 2001). Specifically, if we consider respiratory problems like chronic bronchitis, improper lung development during the intrauterine period, in collaboration with later extraneous agents, will form the biological pathway to a greater risk of respiratory system dysfunction as an adult. Whereas if the individuals socioeconomic condition has led to adverse exposures during childhood, followed by detrimental health behaviour such as smoking, then the pathway to r espiratory diseases would be predominantly social. Likewise, the socio-biological pathway is characterized by the exposure to harmful biological agents as a result of adverse socioeconomic conditions. Or it can be the other way around whereby frequent infections during childhood would come in the way of proper development, leading to a low socioeconomic position during adulthood. RESEARCH AND CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS We can say that the life course approach to health is based on the Biopsychosocial model that maintains that both macro level and micro level processes interact and produce multiple effects on health. But the question arises as to how biological factors (micro level) and psychosocial factors (macro level) interact if they are on different levels. In order to address this issue, researches in health psychology adopts the system theory, according to which all levels in any entity are linked to each other hierarchically and that change in any one level will effect change in all other levels. Based on this understanding, researchers often take an interdisciplinary and multivariate approach to study the interacting processes, both within an individual and at the macro level and maintains that the process of defining an illness should always be done in terms of the biological, psychological and social factors (Oken, 2000). Health psychologists also carry out various prospective studies to evaluate events or variables relating to a particular health condition, such as intervening the smoking habits of people in one society and not in another and looking into the differences in the rate or prevalence of respiratory conditions in both the groups. Prospective longitudinal study is perhaps one of the popular research designs that health psychology adopts in order to follow a group of people and assess them on a number of variables over a long period of time and provides a good measure of factors affecting health of an individual. While correlational research has often been criticized for its inability to determine the direction of causality, researchers often make use of the retrospective approach to rearrange and understand the past conditions and how they lead to the present situation. The life course approach to health has various implications for clinical diagnosis of illnesses, development of treatment plans and training of health care professionals. By examining the Biopsychosocial processes underlying the lifespan development of individuals, health professional can formulate treatment plans and therapies unique to each individual; some may be a predominantly biological approach such as invasive methods while others may take a more psychological stance like cognitive behavioural therapy or relaxation therapy. Therefore, we can understand the health status of people only by viewing them in the social and psychological contexts ( Belar, 1997). CONCLUSION Health psychology strives to understand health in all its dimensions, recognizing all internal and external exposures throughout the life of an individual, giving more importance to the events that occur during the fetal period, childhood and early adulthood and their subsequent impact on adult health and development of illnesses. By downplaying the earlier assumptions that only current exposures or factors influence the onset of a disease or that illness is caused entirely by biological agents, it takes a rather multidimensional and multidirectional approach, taking into consideration the biological, psychosocial and behavioural processes occurring throughout the lifespan, their interactions and the cumulative impact on ones health and disease occurrence. In short, it integrates the lifelong progression of individuals from the intrauterine environment to the larger social environment; a progression that encompasses a series of social and biological factors that work together to dete rmine the health status of individuals in the long run. Health psychology, therefore, tries to explore all the underlying causes of ill health and subsequently develop treatment procedures to overcome them. Word count: 2755

Advantages and Disadvantages of Prison Privatization Essay

The need for a well-built, reliable incarceration service and program is truly of great social, state, federal, and national concern. As the sense of maintaining justice, peace, and order amongst the communities and state-areas is of a national issue, it is only natural that the government and other public officiating bodies are tackling such social matters. However, at the event of prison privatization, many discussions have spurred it as a sound and trusty alternative for various difficulties that public incarceration systems have been facing. As any arguable issue is compromised, advantages and disadvantages present themselves. Economic and Monetary Advantage—Real and Perceived There are on-going arguments which discuss the true fiscal advantage of having a privatized prison system, specifically in terms of whether its contribution is significant or not. Those who support the push of such a privatized system argue that a noteworthy percentage of costs can be saved. In fact, â€Å"advocate for privatization maintain that the private sector management and operation of prison can cut costs by as much as 20%† (Carey, 1997 cited in Cheung, 2004, p. 1). Other studies and research have been done to better prove the cost efficiency of such a system. Organization have made efforts to support this particular privatized advantage, finding a direct relation between sending and keeping inmates in a prison system run by the private sector. Michael Hallett and Amy Hanauer (2001, p. ) writes: A 2001 report from Policy Matter Ohio documented a long-standing practice by Ohio prison administrators who manage contracts with private facilities. The practice is known as â€Å"cherry picking† and involves â€Å"sending less expensive inmates to private facilities, artificially inflating reported cost savings† (cited in Raher, 2002, p. 4). Moreover, the use of a labor base belonging to private sector presents cost-saving advantages as it maintains a sense of control over employee compensation and benefits. Though figures have been given, those who oppose such privatization rebut with delivering disputes that this is more of a misleading notion than fact. Greg Jaffe and Rick Brooks (1998) explain: In a 1996 General Accounting Office (GAO) review of several comparative studies on private versus public prison, researchers acknowledged, â€Å"because the studies reported little difference and/or mixed results in comparing private and public facilities, we could not conclude whether privatization saved money† (cited in Cheung, 2004, p. ). As this is a debatable issue, there are ever combating findings and views upon this matter. It is best to reconsider whether or not there is any actual and beneficial fiscal impact of privatized prisons. Nevertheless, James Austin and Garry Coventry research and examine in terms of future trends that â€Å"a number of companies operating privatized prisons is likely to decrease as competition and costs of doing business increase, thus forcing a con solidation of firms within the industry† (Austin & Coventry, 2001, p. xi ). Hence, the logic of presenting a privatized prison system, a seemingly cost-effective option, still holds problem. Thus, this does not really address solutions to replace fully the traditional, non-privatized, prison system. Quality Process of a Privatized Operation—Safety and Reliability The discussion of quality and reliability of a privatized prison system service and its standing to survive pressing conditions of what prison and its inmates demand is of valuable concern more than anything else. Seemingly, however, prison in a privatized sector is not an ideal fit. There are issues of safety, for the inmates, guards and public, that questions these. Again, James Austin, and Garry Coventry also examines that physical assaults on guards and staff by inmates were almost more significantly recurrent in private prisons than in government-run prisons and physical assaults on fellow inmates were more significantly recurrent in private prisons (Austin & Coventry, 2001). Hence, with the assorted dangers of a privatized system, it then places its integrity on shaky ground. Sentencing Policy and Profit Motive It seems that the correlation of the sentencing policy and profit motive is in line with each other at a prison belonging to the private sector. Since profit maximization is the main objective of a private-based organization, it would seem logical to tip the scales of sentencing towards the private prison’s benefit, presenting the possible use of profitable injustice with conditions that may violate particular prison laws and prisoner rights. This presents a disadvantage more over the conscious effort to exercise the true essence of human justice. Putting the promise of profit ahead of justice is a form of corruption that disrupts the natural hand of the supposed trustworthiness of a true and unbiased justice system. Furthermore, Amy Cheung (2004) adds: â€Å"And because most private prisons operate on a per diem rate for each bed filled, there is a financial incentive not only to detain more inmates more inmates but also to detain them for a longer period of time† (p. 4). Lack of Public Oversight With the privatized prison system, the public is freed from paying taxes that are allocated to maintain and ensure a reliable prison system. However, as tax exemptions are placed, the public ability of oversight in terms of approving and disapproving upon issues of new prison facilities amongst communities, etc, is sacrificed. Conclusion Prison privatization has both advantages and disadvantages that hold key elements for debate. Nonetheless, what must be prioritized is the valuable role of the justice system and the ability of a dependable prison system, whether private, public, or mixed, to render the hand of truthful justice.

Illegal Imigrants Should Be Allowed Essay

This spring, approximately 2. 8 million high school seniors will graduate from various schools around the country. Many will continue their education at college; others will join the armed forces or take another path in life. However, a group of about 65,000 students will be unable to continue on their paths due to their status as illegal immigrants (Dream). Because of their status of illegal immigrants, it is extremely difficult for them to better their way of life. Therefore, illegal immigrants should be allowed to attend public universities. Illegal immigrants are already allowed to attend our public schools from the lementary level all the way through high school. The 1982 Supreme Court decision in Plyler v. Doe ruled that public schools are prohibited from denying immigrant students access to public schools (Plyler). The court found that undocumented children have the same right to a free public education and are obligated to attend school until they reach the age mandated by state law. Since then, many undocumented immigrants have passed through the public education system. Currently, it is believed that as many as 4. 9 million undocumented students are attending public schools (Immigration). However, it is difficult to know the exact umber because of their status as undocumented immigrants. One thing that is known for sure is the number will continue to rise, leaving more and more students with undecided futures after graduation. However, the ability for illegal immigrants to attend public universities has largely been left up to the states. Currently, South Carolina is the only state that prohibits illegal immigrants from attending public universities and colleges that receive state funding; although North Carolina and Alabama both prohibit undocumented people from attending community colleges (Coley). On the other end of the spectrum, nine tates including California, Nebraska, and Texas all offer in-state tuition to illegal immigrants (College). New Jersey is also in the process of deciding whether or not to offer in-state tuition to illegal immigrants. Although the states are the only ones to have passed legislation regarding undocumented immigrants attending public universities, there is legislation currently making its way through Congress. The Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors Act, also known as the DREAM Act, could bring about major changes. It was first introduced in 2007, but failed to make it past the Senate floor. Then this past spring, Senator Durbin from Illinois reintroduced the piece of legislation. Under the currently proposed DREAM Act, undocumented immigrant students would be given the opportunity to attend institutions of higher education and be able to obtain legal, permanent residency. According to the 2009 version of the Senate bill, DREAM Act beneficiaries must have proof of arriving in the United States before age 16 and live in the United States for five consecutive years since their date of arrival. They would also have to be between the ages of 12 and 35 at the time of bill enactment, btain a high school diploma, and have good moral character (Dream). Any opportunity to attend public universities and possibly achieve legal residency. This piece of legislation is expected to bring some heavy debate in the spring and could bring on some important changes if passed. One very important supporter for illegal immigrants attending institutions of higher education is the College Board. The College Board is made up of 5,000 schools and is best known for its SAT college admissions test. This past July, the board released a report citing a need for federal legislation that would provide in-state ollege tuition, financial aid, and legal status to many illegal immigrants in the United States (College). The report is the first time the College Board has spoken publicly about the issue. Undocumented immigrants should be given the right to attend public universities and colleges because we have a moral obligation to give them an equal opportunity to better their situation. Many of the undocumented immigrants that currently live in the United States were brought here by their parents. The children did not make the decision to enter the country illegally, their parents did. By not allowing illegal mmigrants to attend public universities, we are essentially punishing them for decisions they did not make. Also, undocumented immigrants are going to remain and live in the United States regardless of their ability to attend public universities. So if these undocumented immigrants are going to stay here, it makes sense economically to have them be productive as possible. The College Board report shows that with the ability for illegal immigrants to obtain a higher education and move into better paying Jobs, the economy would increase from increased tax revenue and consumer spending College). Additionally, if these undocumented immigrant students are paying for their college education, why not allow them the opportunity to further their knowledge. Under our current system, illegal immigrants are allowed to attend our public schools at no cost. But when these same illegal immigrants want to pay for a higher education, many of them are turned away because of their legal status. Plus, universities and colleges from all over the country already allow foreign exchange students to attend their universities. Here at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, pproximately 6 percent of the student body is from a foreign country (International). There is no controversy on whether or not to allow these students, who are not United States citizens, to attend our public universities. So if someone is willing to pay their way through college, they should be allowed to attend regardless of residency status. All of these reasons support the passage of the DREAM Act. As of today, it remains one of the last hopes for undocumented immigrants to obtain the right to attend public universities indefinitely. Although nine states have passed legislation allowing or in-state tuition for undocumented immigrants, states are increasingly moving towards not allowing them to attend public universities. Missouri and Virginia are currently considering a ban similar to South Carolina’s that would bar all illegal immigrants from attending public universities and colleges (College). So it is time now more than ever to stand up for undocumented immigrants’ rights. We have a public universities. One rebuttal often brought up in the discussion why illegal immigrants should not be allowed to attend public universities is they are breaking the law by being here in the United States. Although undocumented immigrants are breaking the law, it should not hold them back from furthering their education. Many illegal immigrants were brought here by their parents and did not make the decision to come here illegally. Illegal immigrants often spend close to their whole lives in the United States. Although they are still considered illegal in the eyes of the law, many are basically Americans because they have lived here for as long as they can remember. It is Just unfair to continue to punish someone for a decision they did not make. Another rebuttal often made against undocumented immigrants is the overnment is subsidizing an education for non-citizens because they do not pay taxes. The government already subsidizes an education from the high school level on down for everybody regardless of residency status. Also, many undocumented immigrants are unable to obtain residency status in the United States. The long, difficult process of obtaining American citizenship keeps many of these illegal immigrants from paying taxes. The current system we use for obtaining citizenship creates a continual cycle that does not allow for illegal immigrants to pay taxes. If it as easier for undocumented immigrants to obtain citizenship, more tax revenue would be brought in to subsidize their education. In conclusion, there are many factors to consider why illegal immigrants should be allowed to attend public universities. If they are paying their way through college like every other student, then they should be allowed to attend public universities. Plus, many of these undocumented immigrants are going to remain in the United States regardless of their ability to attend universities, so it makes sense to have them be productive as possible. It also does not make sense to punish someone because heir parents came into the United States illegally.

The Faith and Love in Joyces Works - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2137 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2019/03/22 Category Religion Essay Level High school Tags: Faith Essay Did you like this example? There are many aspects of Irish life that are discussed in James Joyces works. The role of religion in shaping social conventions, love relationships and moral structure is a preoccupying element of Joyces stories. Joyces characters in the Dubliners are described as short-tempered, having thwarted loves and intense class and self-consciousness. Many of the characters in Dubliners, seek escape and adventure, ponder the significance of death and react to the confinement of routine. Why are Joyces characters this way? This paper is an attempt to probe these elements of Joyces works. Religious beliefs and unbelief are central, so much to as to become a character of sorts. Joyces persons have religious thought and organizations to join in as it is a tangible and responsive entity. It is odd that many of the characters do not seek out religion or family as the answer to their problems. Farrington of Counterparts demonstrates the dangerous potential of escapism and the actions and components which define his purported normalcy. The word counterpart means a person or thing holding a position or performing a function that corresponds to that of another person or thing in another place. The title itself suggesting the subject being a part of something else but Farrington doesnt see himself as a part. Farringtons work mirrors his social and home life in repetition and it is suggested that this repetition causes his anger to worsen (SparkNotes). However, Farrington, with his explosive physical reactions, shows more than any other character the ramifications of perceived normalcy. On the surface he is a family man and a worker bee with all the props available to him to project the aforementioned images. He is however without understanding how to be a complete human being which might cause his violence. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Faith and Love in Joyces Works" essay for you Create order I do not believe repetition results in violence but a lack of empathy, community and introspection. In his off time, he doesnt lend himself to betterment or gathering with his family but he escapes exhibiting antisocial behavior with binge drinking and excessive spending. He could go home and spend time with his family or he could use his time to pray or introspect about his place as a man, father and husband. He doesnt do these things preferring role playing (a strong man), drunkenness (avoidance) and lashing out (reprisal) at an innocent, his son. He lashes out as if it is others who have failed him but doesnt bother to look within. This story illuminates the importance of choices. Why doesnt he introspect, pray or spend time with his family? All these options are available, but he chooses to do bad. The way religion is portrayed by Joyce is significant. In Grace Father Tom Burke is mentioned. He was a famous and popular Irish Dominican priest whose homiletic style was everything but gracious. His sermons were marked by vulgar metaphors and unabashed xenophobic Irish nationalism. Joyce calls into question the loftier ideals associated with religion even mentioning him. In Grace the characters discuss their view of religion. Cunninghams wife thinks of his going on a religious retreat, Religion for her was a habit, and she suspected that a man of her husbands age would not change greatly before death However, Mr. Cunningham was a capable man; and religion was religion. The scheme might do good and, at least, it could do no harm (148). Catholicism is weaved throughout the Dubliners as a consequence of its importance to Irish society. Joyces stories focus on middle-class Catholic Dubliner who is simultaneously alienated and inundated with the religion of his/her home. Religion being defined as a set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature, and purpose of the universe, especially when considered as the creation of a superhuman activity usually involving devotional and ritual observances, the Dubliners have that convention presented solidly. The things that seem to elude the characters is true faith and a moral code governing the conduct of human affairs. Religion as the ritual observance of faith seems lacking. Religion and loss of religion are major themes in Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man and the Dubliners. Stephen when the Belvedere priest encourages him to join the priesthood decides to learn his wisdom apart from otherswandering among the snares of the world. The characters in Joyces work have been provide the basis of religious reflection but opt out choosing to play fast and loose and go it alone with varying results. At the same time Joyce seems to incorporate the idea of the sacred as attainable outside of religious thought. Joyce mentions simony in The Sisters contemplates the word paralysis or the loss of the ability to move and sometimes to feel anything. But our narrator likens it to gnomon and simony in its strangeness stating But now it sounded to me like the name of some maleficent and sinful being. It filled me with fear, and yet I longed to be nearer to it and to look upon its deadly work (1). In a more detailed talk of these strange words, the issue of simony and gnomon in one form or another arises. Simony is buying or selling of something spiritual or closely connected with the spiritual. It is any contract of this kind prohibited by divine or ecclesiastical law. The name is taken from Simon Magus (Acts 8:18), who attempted to buy the power of conferring the gifts of the Holy Spirit from the Apostles. Simony, in the form of buying holy orders, or church offices, was virtually unknown in the first three centuries of the Christian church, but it became familiar when the church had positions of wealth and influence to bestow. From that time prohibitions and penalties were reiterated against buying or selling promotions to the episcopate, priesthood, and diaconate. Later, the offense of simony was extended to include all traffic in benefices and all pecuniary transactions on masses (apart from the authorized offering), blessed oils, and other consecrated objects. After the 16th century, it steadily disappeared in its most flagrant forms with the disendowment and secularization of church property. Gnomon in its original Greek means one that knows or examines, these seemingly unimportant words might offer an explanation of Joyces worship at the altar of theosophy, coopting ideas essential in religious practice as important to the secular enjoyment of life. Perhaps the perversion of the spiritual nature of love with money (simony) and a lack of examination or knowledge of these important things(gnomon) is a preoccupation of Joyce and his character. The view of Mr. Duffy of A Painful Case of the sacred upon reading of ? ¬? ¬? ¬Mrs. Emily Sinicos death, What an end! The whole narrative of her death revolted him, and it revolted him to think that he had ever spoken to her of what he held sacred (106). Mr, Duffy in earlier conversation reveals what he thinks is sacred, He thought that in her eyes he would ascend to an angelical stature; and, as he attached the fervent nature of his companion more and more closely to him, he heard the strange impersonal voice which he recognized as his own, insisting on the souls incurable loneliness (103). A Painful Case that forces the reader to examine their assumptions about the storys sexual politics before they can propose judgments of its characters. Duffys alienation takes on a sort of ethical responsibility because his love interest is married. Whether believing Duffy to be narcissistic in reading of A Painful Case exposes the ethically problematic nature of Duffys inactions even they are brought about by neurosis and societal repression. Duffys interactions with Mrs. Sinico grounded in integrity instead of sexual desire whereas he represents narcissism in inauthentic amorous encounters. This comparison stresses the affirmation of the loved one and an acceptance of her/his individuality as a condition for love. In contrast to the narcissistic tendency to use the love object as a mirror for the self, love entails the responsibility of two separate people, a promise that establishes an equal, reciprocal connection between them but of course is an impossibility for Duffy. The mark of many of Joyces characters is the inability to connect with others successfully. This might be in a marriage as with Little Chandler of A Little Cloud or some other relationship. There are not much actual connections just a series of roles, responsibilities and expectations. In absence of mature example of marriage and other relationships, Joyces work indicates his efforts to work out tenets of love. The Dubliners provides a fascinating and peek into Joyces evolving attitudes toward love in the contexts of marriage his literary fascination with it. In Joyces works he seemed to find marriage either domineering or deceptive. In The Boarding House Joyce shows marriage as either oppressive in the case of Mrs. Mooney or a deceptive contract born of a con of sorts with Polly and Mr. Dorans union. Marriage is alluded to as a ploy of sorts bred of convenient timing and social ignorance. Joyce shows Mrs. Mooney weighing the odds thinking, she had all the weight of social opinion on her side: she was an outraged mother. She had allowed him to live beneath her roof, assuming that he was a man of honour, and he had simply abused her hospitalitynor could ignorance be his excuse since he was a man who had seen something of the world (58). Other times marriage is portrayed as a warm blanket providing comfort for its characters. In A Mother the marriage is described very sympathetically, the narrator states, At some party in a strange house when she lifted her eyebrow ever so slightly he stood up to take his leave and, when his cough troubled him, she put the eider-down quilt over his feet and made a strong rum punch. For his part, he was a model father (128). Author Janine Utell provides an intriguing and well-argued analysis of Joyces evolving attitudes toward love. Illicit desire becomes a space in which to explore questions of autonomy, selfhood, and value; it is a revolutionary move against conventional utilitarian understandings (or lack thereof) of the erotic. It is precisely this revolt that Joyce is staging in his work: a revolt against conventional frameworks of marriage that stifle desire, restrict individuals, and keep men and women from seeing the person they love and recognizing that person as autonomous and separate (3). The voices message that we cannot give ourselves we are our own (103) not only shows that Mrs. Sinicos emotional attachment to Duffy will be rejected because it requires an indulgence that Duffy is incapable of giving; it also reveals the alienation intrinsic in his interpretation of love and his interactions with others. He can use the fervent nature of his companion (102) to strengthen his self-love, but his insistence that he is his own isolated being renders him incapable of returning her devotion. In order to achieve genuine community and to realize the idea of community, we must create the social conditions that facilitate this, the mutual confirmation of human beings by one another. To demonstrate the importance of this loving dialogue in the idea of community this section explores the implications of Duffys refusal of Emily Sinico. It argues that the interactions between Mrs. Sinico and Duffy represent a conflict between two different methods of loving their fellow Dubliners . However, by reading the political content of their conversations with respect to Buber, we discover that Duffys inability to affirm Mrs. Sinicos otherness is indicative of a greater societal alienation that undermines his collective aspirations. To that end, recognizing that the love Emily Sinico offers Duffy is not simply the embrace of an individual, but rather an opportunity to transform that affirmation of humanity into a larger social interchange that would enable him to bring about the transformation that he might desire. Dubliners concerns itself primarily with wider questions of sympathy and the reading process. The idea of sympathy is a frequently addressed in the literary works themselves and there are many similarities between sympathetic feeling and our approach to reading texts; this realization prepares the way for new insights into narrative interpretation. Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man and Dubliners seems a fitting choice for a text against which to read ideas of understanding and sympathy. The complexity in the narration of these stories problematizes Joyces engagement with sympathy, both in his depiction of his characters and his positioning of his narrators. The stylistic structure of short stories is more complex than is generally afforded Joyces earliest writings, prepositioning even in comparison to his more challenging texts. Stephen Dedalus in Ulysses states the case, A man of genius makes no mistakes (228). Joyces characters errors are volitional and are the portals of disco very. Works Cited Joyce, James. Dubliners. Amazon Classics. Kindle Edition. Utell, Janine. James Joyce and the Revolt of Love: Marriage, Adultery, Desire. New York: Palgrave. 2010.